Democracy America Free Essays

In the world today and in America, democracy is the most valued and the vaguest political terms in the current political times and campaigns. The term democracy by definition is a governmental system in which the citizens retain and exercise the political sovereignty. This means that the citizens of a country have a direct say and would contribute in the administration of the country through one of their elected representative. We will write a custom essay sample on Democracy America or any similar topic only for you Order Now The democracy in America is controlled by two major principles that has to be observed, these are; citizens have equal access to power and are guarded the same while the second one is that, the same power guards all members to enjoy the societal freedoms and liberties. Another very clear definition of democracy is that, it is a form of government which is constituted by the people of a country and in which the supreme power of that government is vested on the same people who constitute it. 3 This government by the people lack any form of hereditary or class distinction differentiation on class basis or privileges. True democracy is voted for by the majority and one that serves and works for the interest of the people, although in any country true democracy is not being experienced by the citizens, they have a voice during elections. This allows the citizens to elect whoever will represent their particular interest and standards. 4 In the world there are three major types of democracy that are well known, namely direct democracy, representative democracy and liberal democracy; Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which the citizens have the right and the responsibility to attend meetings the national assembly and participate in the making of policies. In this case all the directly contribute and affect the decision making process. This system has representatives who drew the agendas for such assembly meetings. In this kind of democracy all the citizens have the right to vote and hold offices and it is the duty of all the citizens in a country to actively participate in the decision making process which is determined by the majority. 5 Representative democracy is the kind of democracy that is used in the American Democracy. This form of democracy is characterized by the fact that the citizens elect their representatives who make the decisions on their behalf. Representative democracy is practiced both at the state level, local levels and eve n at the institutions levels. 6 The third form of democracy is liberal democracy which is a form of representative democracy in which the elected representatives that hold offices and have the power of decision making on behalf of the public are moderated by the rule of law (constitution). The rule of law in all circumstances emphasizes the protection of the individual rights and the rights of the minority groups in the society. The most basic rights to be protected by the rule of law are like the rights of assembly and speech, the rights to owe and use private property, the rights and freedom to religion and the right to be equal before the rule of law. This democracy is as well characterized by elections; it is also characterized multi party systems and also an independent judiciary. These forms of democracy are being practiced in different countries and they all have their advantages and disadvantages. 7 A society that experiences any kind of democracy among the ones discussed above must meet some of the minimum characteristics. Those characteristics have to be met for a society to be referred to as democratic. The main characteristic of a democratic society is to educate the whole society to understand what democracy is and to know their obligations, contributions and requirements as citizens in a democratic society. 8 After the education of the public about their democracy they should also experience that they have the power to choose and replace the government through free and fair elections, the citizens should be actively be involved in the politics and the civil life, the democratic government should have the ability to protect the human rights and in that society the rule of law (i. e. the laws and the procedures) to apply equally to al citizens. All these are the minimum qualifications for a democratic society. 9 A democratic society first is characterized by a political System by which there is competition for power. Democratic societies have the mandate of to choose their leaders and to ensure that they are held accountable for their policies and conduct in office. In this due process of election the people decide who will represent them in parliament and who will head the government at the national and local levels. This is done in a fee and fair elections. In this society the government is based on the decision of the citizens because they are sovereign. In this society the elected representatives at the national and the local levels are always consulting their electorate and work according to their needs and representatives. The principle of the public suggestion has to be observed since the public have the right and obligation to monitor their representatives business in the government and are free to criticize them. 10 This requirement for a democratic society demands that free and fair elections be held after a regular interval as prescribed by law, this elections are not to be influenced by the people in power who do not have any right to extend their time in office without asking the consent of the people. In all democratic elections al the candidates also have the right to campaign freely and to present their ideologies to the voters. The whole process must be monitored by independent electoral observers and a committee that is to resolve any electoral disputes. 11 The second requirement to be met by a democratic society is that the citizens have a bigger responsibility to participate in public life. The society have the mandate and the obligations to be informed about public issues, they have the obligation to watch carefully how their political representatives use the powers vested on them and to give their opinions and criticism on the same. This can only be achieved if the civil societies who represent a variety of interest and beliefs educate the public and especially women their democratic rights and responsibilities, improve their political skills, represent their common interests, and involve them in political life. In this system there is no one that should be forced to support any political party and the citizens should always be free to support any political party. 12 The third requirement for a democratic society is that every citizen in the society has some basic right that is guaranteed under the international law and the state cannot take away from them. The citizens have the rights to have their own beliefs and to communicate freely. They too have the freedom of religion; this states that everyone is free to chose their own religion and to practice their religious norms as they deem fit for them. The citizens in such societies have the right to associate with other people and to be incorporate and to be incorporated in the organizations of their own choice. With all these freedoms and others, the state puts it upon the citizens to exercise these rights peacefully, with respect for the law and for the rights of others. 13 The fourth and last basic requirement for democracy in a society is that it be recognized as the rule of law. This rule of law protects the rights citizens, help in the maintenance of orders and helps to limit the power of government. In such a society all the citizens are treated equally under the rule of law and are not being discriminated based on their gender, race, religion or even the ethnic group. In this society the citizens are being protected by law and should never be arrested arbitrarily, they have the right to know their charges and anybody charged with a crime has the right to a fair, open and speedy public trial by an impartial public court. 14 In a democratic society no one is above the law and the law treats people equally. Although these are the requirements of any democratic society, all the societies in the world do not prove to obey them and to defend them. Therefore democracy is only a political term which is not put into practice. Work cited http://www. wisegeek. com/what-is-a-liberal-democracy. htm Retrieved on 19th July 2008 Janda Kenneth and Et al (2004) The Challenge of Democracy: Government in America Houghton Mifflin Blaich Theodore Paul and Baumgartner Joseph Cornelius (1953) the Challenge of Democracy. Published by McGraw-Hill http://www. hewett. norfolk. sch. uk/CURRIC/POLIT/DEMOC. htm Retrieved on The 19th JULY 2008 http://college. hmco. com/polisci/janda/chall_dem/9e/student_home. html Retrieved on The July 19, 2008 How to cite Democracy America, Papers

Racial Prejudice And White Privilege Essay Example For Students

Racial Prejudice And White Privilege Essay Racism is still after 200 years one of the most dominant political/social issues of our time. The case of the white mother who had given birth to a half black baby as a result of a sperm bank mix-up really highlights the topics of racism and white privilege in the United States. The white mother has filed a lawsuit for damages for emotional distress against the sperm bank. There are several points to address: the white mother treating her black child different, the social and cultural surroundings that in part that are racist, and the validity of her law suit. White privilege is a result of the cultural/social background of the United States as well as the subtle racism that’s still exists. This case says a lot about the cultural background in the United States in relation to white privilege. I would argue that this case isn’t a problem of a racist couple, but rather a racial and intolerant society. The mother’s main concerns stem from the society and cultural pressure. Her fears of her parents judging the baby, the â€Å"black hair cut† Clifton (2014), and the white school are all valid concerns. She has the concerns of what a black mother would normally have. My problem with this statement is it generalizes once again. Racism and stereotypes are intertwined. By generalizing what all black mothers go through, it is using stereotypes to justify arguments. The child’s black hair cut situation really stuck in my head. The expectation of how a black girl should have her hair done is insane to me. According to Clifton (2014) â€Å"As just one example, getting a young daughter’s hair cut is not particularly stressful for most mothers, but to Jennifer it is not a routine matter because Payton has the typical hair of a African American Girl.†. . . weightless knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools and black checks.† White privilege, racism, and cultural stereotypes are complex topics that ultimately are interconnected. As a result of the interconnection and its deep roots in American culture, ultimately it will take a countrywide effort to confront these issues. The racially intolerant societies in America, as well as the double-edged sword of white privilege, and the subtle racism that is all too common all have an impact on American people. The case of the women having a mixed baby is not the problem, the problem is the black hair cut style or the example of black children being sent to the office for less serious offenses then their white counterparts. In conclusion, I believe that white privilege exists because of cultural stereotyping as well as subtle racism.

Death Penalty And Justice Essays - Capital Punishment, Penology

Death Penalty And Justice Looking out for the state of the public's satisfaction in the scheme of capital sentencing does not Constitute serving justice. Today's system of capital punishment is fought with inequalities and Injustices. The commonly offered arguments for the death penalty are filled with holes. It was a Deterrent. It removed killers. It was the ultimate punishment. It is biblical. It satisfied the public's need For retribution. It relieved the anguish of the victim's family. (Grisham 120) Realistically, imposing the Death penalty is expensive and time consuming. Retroactively, it has yet to be proven as a deterrent. Morally, it is a continuation of the cycle of violence and ?...degrades all who are involved in its Enforcement, as well as its victim. (Stewart 1) Perhaps the most frequent argument for capital punishment is that of deterrence. The prevailing Thought is that imposition of the death penalty will act to dissuade other criminals from committing Violent acts. Numerous studies have been created attempting to prove this belief; however, to the Evidence taken together makes it hard to be confident that capital punishment deters more than long Prison terms do. (Cavanagh 4) Going ever farther, Bryan Stevenson, the executive director of the Montgomery based Equal Justice Initiative, has stated that people are increasingly realizing that the More we resort to killing as a legitimate response to our frustration and anger with violence, the more Violent our society becomes. We could execute all three thousand people on death row, and most People would not feel any safer tomorrow. (Frame 51) In addition, with the growing humanitarianism Of modern society, the number of inmates actually put to death is substantially lower than 50 years Ago. This decline creates a situation in which the death penalty ceases to be a deterrent when the Populace begins to think that one can get away with a crime and go unpunished. Also, the less that the Death sentence is used; the more it becomes unusual, thus coming in conflict with the eighth Amendment. This is essentially a paradox, in which the less the death penalty is used, the less society Can legally use it. The end result is a punishment that ceases to deter any crime at all. The key part of the death penalty is that it involves death-something, which is rather permanent for Humans, due to the concept of mortality. This creates a major problem when there continue to be Many instances of innocent people being sentenced to death. (Tabak 38) In our legal system, there Exist numerous ways in which justice might be poorly served for a recipient of the death sentence. Foremost is in the handling of his own defense counsel. In the event that a defendant is without Counsel, a lawyer will be provided. Attorney's appointed to represent indigent capital defendants Frequently lack the qualities necessary to provide a competent defense and sometimes have exhibited Such poor character that they have subsequently been disbarred. (Tabak 37). With payment caps or Court determined sums of, for example, $5 an hour; there is not much incentive for a lawyer to spend A great deal of time was representing a capital defendant. When you compare this to the prosecution, Aided by the police, other law enforcement agencies, crime labs, state mental hospitals, various Other scientific resources, prosecutors experienced in successfully handling capital cases, Compulsory process, and grand juries (Tabak 37), the defense that the court appointed counsel can Offer is puny. If, in fact, a defendant has a valid case to offer, what chance has he to offer it and have It properly recognized. Furthermore, why should he be punished for a misjustice that was created by? The court itself when it appointed the incapable lawyer. Even if a defendant has proper legal counsel, There is still the matter of impartiality of judges. The Supreme Court has steadily reduced the Availability of habeas corpus review of capital convictions, placing its confidence in the notion that State judges, who take the same oath of office as federal judges to uphold the Constitution, can be Trusted to enforce it. (Bright 768) This makes for the biased trying of a defendant's appeals, given The overwhelming pressure on elected state judges to heed, and perhaps even lead to, the popular cries For the death of criminal defendants. (Bright 769) Thirty two of the states that impose the death Penalty also employ the popular election of judges, and several of these even have judges run with Party affiliations. This creates a deeply political justice system-the words alone are a paradox. Can

Exercises

Exercises er Canstar Cannex, Joshua Zenas, says a car purchase isn't regarded as good debt because the borrowing isn't for something that will appreciate in value (Parker, 2010). It may thus be wise to avoid or minimize borrowing money to purchase a car. Obringer suggests the following sources of finance: dealership, bank or credit union, online financial institution, home equity loan, family member or friend (Obringer, 2013). Exercise 4: Explain how the European Commission, European governments and the ECB have responded to the sovereign debt crisis affecting Euro-based economies? The European Commission has created guides with regards to aiding European countries who urgently need help. The Commissions focus is on responding to peoples needs, targeting those in real need and improving peoples integration into society (A stronger safety net for those in need, 2013). On the other hand, European governments, led by the European Union, have reportedly been concentrating on the bailing out of the countries with struggling economies such as Greece, Ireland and Portugal. These countries were granted billions of Euros of loans to help bring back their economies to stability. The European Central Bank, led by its president Mario Draghi, has declared to grant loans with the lowest interest rates to European nations (Kenny, 2013). Exercise 5: The Closed Fund is a closed-end investment fund company with an investment portfolio company currently worth $200m. It has liabilities of $30 million and 5 million shares outstanding. What is the NAV of the fund? If the fund sells at $36 per share, what is the premium/ discount as a percentage of the NAV? Net Asset Value is equal to the sum of market value of all the securities and cash and equivalent holdings, less the fund liabilities, divided by the total outstanding fund shares. Using the formula, the NAV for the fund would be $34, given that the company is worth $200 million with liabilities of $30 million and 5 million in shares. If the fund sells at $36 per share, then the premium/discount as a percentage of the NAV is 5.56%. Exercise 6: Consider a mutual fund with $200 million in assets and 10 million shares outstanding at the start of the year. The fund invests in a portfolio of stocks which provides a dividend income at the end of the year of $2 million. The stocks included in the portfolio increase in price by 18% during the year, but no securities are sold and there is no capital distribution. The fund charges management fees of 1% based on the year end portfolio asset value. What is the NAV at the start and the end of the year? What is the rate of return for the investor? The Net Asset Value at the beginning of the year is equal to $200 million in assets, less than liabilities, divided by 10 million shares. Since there was no value for the liabilities mentioned, the NAV then is $20 at the beginning of the year. Given that the fund charges management fees of 1% based on the year end portfolio asset value, the NAV at the end of the year is $19.80 since 1% of $20 is $0.20. The fund then invests $2 million in a portfolio of stocks, in which the value increases by 18% at the end of the year. Using the formula for Rate of Return on Investments, the rate would still be 18%. Exercise 7: You purchased 1,000 shares in New Fund at a price of $20 per share at the start of the year. You paid an entry fee of 4%. The securities in which the fund invests have increased in value by 12% during the year. The fund has incurred expenses (including management fees) of 1.2% of its assets (on an average basis) during the year. What is your rate of return and actual gain if you sell your shares at the end of the year? The buyer has initially purchased a total of $20,000 in shares. Paying the 4% entry fee would cost him another $800. During the year, the fund has incurred expenses of 1.2% of its assets, which amounts to $240. At the end of the year, the securities that the fund invested in would increase by 12%, which would be equal to $22,400. The rate of return on investment would be 6.46% and the actual gain would be $1,360.

Should women be allowed in combat (yes) arguing for the issue Research Paper

Should women be allowed in combat (yes) arguing for the issue - Research Paper Example First, women who comprise almost 14 percent of the armed forces should be allowed to serve fully in front- line combat units because they have proven themselves to be mentally, morally, and physically able to lead and execute combat-type operations (Healey, 57). As a result, some of these female marines feel qualified for the opportunity of taking on the role. My personal experience has been that women are as good leaders and team builders as men. I have noticed that women have good interpersonal and communication skills. They are good at taking orders; they are careful, keen and observant, and incorporating them in the combat can make it very successful (express.co.uk). Secondly, there is no clear evidence that integrating women soldiers into military operations or previously closed units damages cohesion or has other ill effects. In fact and independent report has suggested that women who serve in combat in Afghanistan and Iraq had a positive impact on the accomplishment of the mission (King, 409). Allowing women in the military makes the army looks normal to the society and increases its operational capability. General Sir Peter Wall put is that "they are fundamental to the operational effectiveness of the UKs Armed Forces, bringing talent and skills across the board† (express.co.uk).   Allowing women in combat creates a mixed gender force thus keeping the military strong. Deploying and recruiting women who are in better shape is much easier than many men who are sent in combat. Over the years I have realized that women are as intelligent as men and a woman, who commits into doing something, always does it perfectly (express.co.uk). Lastly, women should be allowed in combat because it will elevate their status in the military. Combat duty is often necessary for promotion to senior positions, therefore, denying female personnel the experience further entrenches sexism as very few will reach the highest

International Terrorism (FALN) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Terrorism (FALN) - Essay Example The FALN was most active during the 1970s and 1980s, but their activities have drastically declined in the last two decades. In the FALN's Communiquà © #1 of October 26, 1974, their Central Command states that they have been advocating an armed revolution since 1969 for the purpose of eliminating "yanki colonialism" from Puerto Rico, by committing acts of violence in the US and against US interests in Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Armed Forces of National Liberation, 1974, p.2). The reference to yanki colonialism refers to the capitalistic dominance of Puerto Rico by the influence of the US economy. At this time they acknowledged the bombing of major US corporations, as well as bombings of department stores and the Newark NJ Police Department in the spring of 1974. By late 1979, the FALN had become Puerto Rico's most significant terrorist group and according to Francis (1979), "About 75 actions and at least five deaths resulted from FAL"s [sic] terrorism, the most significant being the Fraunces Tavern bombing in New York City on January 24, 1975, in which four died. In 1977-78, FALN carried out nineteen bombing actions in the continental U.S." (p.14). The decade of the 1980s would see an increased visibility of the FALN as they continued their violent movement advocating independence for Puerto Rico. The 1980s would see the FALN become the most threatening terrorist organization in this hemisphere, but by the end of the decade they had subsided in their activities. In March of 1980, FALN terrorists seized the Dominican Republic's embassy in Bogot Columbia and issued a statement threatening to attack nuclear power plants within the US (Sater, 1981, p.vi). Through the 1980s, the FALN worked with other Latin American terrorist groups and struck targets throughout the region, in Puerto Rico, and on the US mainland. In the 1980s the FALN "claimed credit for more than 100 bombings at mainland train stations, airports, and multinational corporations" as well as US government installations in Puerto Rico (Morris, 1995, p.57). In 1980-1981, several key members of the FALN were arrested and convicted of multiple serious federal crimes that resulted in their incarceration for as long as 50 years (Kushner, 2003, p.129). During 1982 and 1983, the group conducted sporadic bombings, most notabl y the 1982 New Year's Eve attacks in New York City (Kushner, 2003, p.129). After further arrests in 1982 and 1983, and a 1985 raid on FALN headquarters in Puerto Rico, the activities of the FALN almost completely subsided (Kushner, 2003, p.130). During their period of activity, the FALN was blamed for approximately 400 bombings, 18 deaths, and millions of dollars in property damage (Hewitt, 2000, p.28). The FALN is noted as being one of the most violent organizations to ever operate on the US mainland. Membership An evaluation of the FALN's membership includes the numbers, their motivations, and the outside influences that facilitated their activities. During the FALN's most active period, the membership rose to well over 100 active members, and retained a membership of approximately 120 members after the arrests of the 1980s (Hewitt, 2000, p.33; Kushner, 2003, p.1

Feminist Movements in Religion: Hinduism and Christianity

Feminist Movements in Religion: Hinduism and Christianity To what extent can a cross-religious feminist movement help create an egalitarian society in Hinduism and Christianity? Religion in all of its forms has existed since the very beginning of mankind. From the beginning of civilizations on Earth up until present day society, religion has consistently impacted the behaviors, culture, and beliefs of societies by offering the answers to the unanswerable, and by providing a method for achieving liberation, or an ultimate goal after death. Hinduism and Christianity, two of the oldest and largest world religions impact society in multiple ways, an example of which being the role of women. In spite of the feminist movements impact on the stereotypical view of females in society, the greatly androcentric traditions of these two ways of life have lessened the impact feminist movements throughout the globe, and have led to limited developments in the lives of women living in these highly-structured societies. Feminism was an idea that was created by a French writer, Alexander Dumas, in 1872, that attempts to define the movement in which women try to reach equality with men in the religious, social, political, professional, educational, economical, and other spheres. [1] Many feminist movements have, over time, attempted to bring about a more gender equal world, but influences from Hinduism and Christianity have halted their influence in certain parts of the world. Because of past failures, it seems vital that people create a global feminism movement which, through pressure and influence, can hope to combat the deeply entrenched viewpoints in the minds of people regarding women and their role in society. Although this solution seems plausible idealistically, issues can be created when attempting to bring together the vastly different ideologies of Christianity and Hinduism into a single feminist movement. The impact the hypothetical movement would have would be limited as a result of solel y religion, as people are often unable to work with people who are unlike themselves. In order to create a feminist movement that can surpass religion, individuals must recognize and accept the similarities between Hinduism and Christianity in various aspects of the religions, such as the role of women in society and how God is represented, to create an efficient movement that can begin to form an egalitarian society. To better comprehend the role of women in Hindu society, one must discern the concept of dharma. This idea has a wide range of meaningsand it has more to do with duty than with rights[2]. Dharma has a profound impact on the role of all individuals on society. It governs the way in which people lead their lives not by giving them rights, but by telling them to do their duty. However, the presence of patriarchal scriptures in Hinduism, such as The Laws of Manu from the Dharmashastras, have created an eminently androcentric society and religion in which women are subordinates to men [3]. While many scriptures do emphasize the equality between men and women, those texts that contain liberating images of women have hitherto been given scant attention [4]. This partisan analysis of the sacred texts has helped to foster and entrench the disparity between genders that is present in Hindu life today. Dharma is an idea that is specific to Hinduism. However, inequality between men and women is also present in Christianity. Christianity in its raw form stresses the importance of equality between both genders. Schussler explains, Christians understood themselves as a new community, in which all members shared equally in the freedom of the children of God. The equality that was present in early Christianity drew people, specifically women, to the religion. However, women still had to deal with a subordinate role in society because of clear bias in the interpretation of the Bible. Stresses is placed on excerpts like 1 Timothy 2:9-15, which states that both commanded [women] to keep silent and behave modestly, and explicitly forbidden to teach or to have any authority over men [5]. Additionally, essential teachings, like women being equally created in the image and likeness of God, redeemed by Christ, graced by the Spirit [6], are neglected and dismissed. Because early Christian interpr etations of the Bible were scribed only by men, they transmitted only a fraction of the rich tradition about significant women and their contributions to early Christianity [7]. Therefore, the tendentious history provided by male scholars helped to create the androcentric society present in Christianity today. Although the essentials of both religions try and construct an egalitarian society, the flawed analysis and clarification of scriptures shows that in both religions, societies revolved around men. Therefore, the dominance of men in society helped form greatly androcentric societies. The affinity of the two religions will help to bolster the new cross-regional feminist movement. The movement should bring forth and argue upon the reexamination and reinterpretation of holy texts by providing proof of biased interpretation in both Hinduism and Christianity, evidenced by the presence of male focused societies in the two religions. A reexamination would bring to light the man passages that emphasize equality between men and women in society. This would allow the feminist movement to take a new step towards the creation of a more egalitarian society. Even though some key similarities between the two religions are present, there are also many differences that need to be addressed. A key feature of Hinduism which has allowed an androcentric society to flourish is the presence of both the caste system as well as an innate family hierarchy. Both of these structures, which make up familial and societal norms, are based on the aforementioned concept of dharma and its impact on the roles of both men and women. Because of the inflexible structure of society, a specific faction of individuals based on age, gender, and seniority [8], remain at the zenith. Also, expectations placed on both men and women because of their role in society have resulted in some cases [where] both men and women have been equally disadvantaged [9]. This injustice has, in certain cases, positively impacted social change, as Womens issues have not been seen exclusively in the domain of women. Some Indian men have espoused and championed the cause of women [10]. The inferiority felt by both men and women as a result of the impact of dharma and an uncompromising society has been powerful in leading to social reform that is attempting to create a more egalitarian society. The joint effort of black men and women in Christianity has also aided in bringing about change. The coordination of these individuals along with the white majority has increased unity within the religion. If Rosa Parks had not sat down, Martin [Luther] King would not have stood up.[11] This saying demonstrates how the combined forces of men and women were needed to stimulate social change. Considering how an entire African American family mother, father, children, and black kinsfolk was oppressed and confronted by systemic violence[12], actions of both women and men were vital in bringing about change to the blatant racial prejudice of the time. Changes have been brought about by joint efforts between men and women, but inequalities in the roles of men and women in Hinduism and Christianity are still present. A major cause of this is the lack of a large enough demands for social and religious change such as equal social status. A multi religious feminist movement would add to efforts to bring about social equality for all women and men in Christianity. Although the movements seem to be strikingly unique on the surface, the issue of equality between genders and their roles in society is a universal one. The increased demand for social change due to the combined efforts of both religions will aid in bringing about a more egalitarian society. The struggle of equality is present in both Hinduism and Christianity. This is primarily because of the similarities in the roles of women in both of the religions. The description of Sita in the Ramayan can be interpreted to clearly define the boundaries in which a woman must act in Hinduism. The epic centers around Ram, an avatar of God, who is exiled to a forest as per the wishes of his stepmother. In the forest, his wife, Sita, is kidnapped by the demon Ravana. Ravana hopes to marry Sita, and therefore he keeps her locked in his kingdom on the island of Sri Lanka. Sita, who is the image of the perfect wife, remains loyal to her her husband in the face of danger. Ultimately, Sita is rescued by Ram, and shows herself to be the ideal, chaste, woman, obedient to her husband [13] . Despite scriptures like the Dharmashastras, an example being the Narada Smriti, were liberal in their attitude toward women [14], the obligations a wife had towards her spouse valued qualities that were mos tly based on the portrayal of women, which were portrayed in epics such as the Ramayana in contrast to the Dharmashastras, were the true definers of the role of women in society. [15] These roles of women which were provided through stories helped to solidify and strengthen the ideal role that women had in society in Hinduism. Also helping to form the androcentric nature of Christianity is its limited depiction of women. In the Book of Genesis, which includes the story of creation, it is stated that God regards Eve as primarily a child-bearing creature [16]. Although Eve was equal to Adam, this quote from the Bible transforms her role as a human into a simple helper who exists for the procreation of children [17]. In actuality, [Adam] calls her name Eve, life, because she was the mother of all living' [18]. Therefore, Eves role was reduced to one of a motherly nature whose sole duty in the world was to help in the procreating of children. This lessened the value of women in Christianity, and helped to move it towards the androcentric religion that it is today. All women, in both Hinduism and Christianity, should concentrate on being good mothers and dutiful wives. Although, idealistically, both men and women are to be thought of as equals with noteworthy commitments to humankind, each gender has roles that are specific to them. Women are supposed to bear, nourish, and deliver new persons into life [, and] carry out the responsibilities of raising children into maturity [19]. Although this stereotypical responsibility of women lessens their true worth, it can be used to help in creating an egalitarian society. Gandhi used the importance of women to change the way in which they were viewed. He valued the qualities such as non-violence, self-denial, self-sacrifice, and endurance that were normally associated with womanhood, and he expected men (including himself) to emulate these values' [20]. Imitating these great qualities that each gender should have elevated society by allowing men to comprehend the true importance and significance that w omen had. Their roles were just as, if not even more, important as those of men. This example can be utilized in modern-day society by creating a mutual respect for the roles of both genders. By looking at and comprehending the significance of both genders, people can help to progress the combined feminist movement and help to create an egalitarian society. Additionally, the portrayal of God in both Hinduism and Christianity must be understood and comprehended to help and create a multi-religion feminist movement. The ideas of a God in both religions vary slightly. Hindus believe in one supreme being. Although the presence of all the avatars of God are acknowledges, a Hindu believes one of those aspects to be supreme. Devotees worship every God or Goddess whom they addressas the supreme reality [21]. Therefore, it can be said that Hindus worship the avatar of God that has the most importance to them, regardless of its gender (i.e. the worship of the goddess Laxmi to grant a Hindu wealth). This compatibility of both the male and female forms of Gods shows the fundamental equality among both genders. Male and female avatars of God do play different roles in the universe, but each is equally important to the whole. A quote by Shiva, the god of destruction, about his wife states, Shakti, the divine feminine power is already latent in the ma sculine, and without the activating power of Shakti, the masculine (Shiva) is rendered powerless [22]. This quote demonstrates how both men and women are needed to carry out a task in the universe. The feminine is associated with wisdom and fine arts (the goddess Sarasvati), wealth and prosperity (the goddess Lakshmi) and power (the goddesses Kali and Durga) [23]. The values that these goddesses represent are important in society. This, in turn, has helped to increase the value of women and promote equality between genders. Bibliography Clines, David. What Does Eve Do to Help?: And Other Readerly Questions to the Old Testament. England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990. Book. Johnson, Elizabeth A. A Theological Case for God-She: Expanding the Treasury of Metaphor. Commonweal (1993): pp. 9-14. Narayanan, Vasudha. Brimming with Bhakti, Embodiments of Shakti: Devotees, Deities, Performers, Reformers, and Other Women of Power in the Hindu Tradition. Sharma, Arvind and Katherine K Young. Feminism and World Religions. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999. pp. 25-77. Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Christology and Feminism: Can a Male Saviour Save Women ? 1981. 25 April 2015. Schussler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. Word, Spirit, and Power: Women in Early Christian Communities. Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979. Sugirtharajah, Sharada. Hinduism and Feminism: Some Concern. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion (2012): pp. 97-104. Wiliams, Delores S. Black Theology and Womanist Theology. Antonio, Edward P. and Dwight N. Hopkins. The Cambridge Companion to Black Theology. Cambridge University Press, n.d. pp. 58-72. [1] Narayanan, Vasudha. Brimming with Bhakti, Embodiments of Shakti: Devotees, Deities, Performers, Reformers, and Other Women of Power in the Hindu Tradition. Sharma, Arvind and Katherine K Young. Feminism and World Religions. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999. pp. 25 [2] Sugirtharajah, Sharada. Hinduism and Feminism: Some Concern. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion (2012): pp. 100 [3] Sugirtharajah, pp.100 [4] Sugirtharajah, pp.100 [5] Schussler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. Word, Spirit, and Power: Women in Early Christian Communities. Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and Christian Traditions. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979. [6] Johnson, Elizabeth A. A Theological Case for God-She: Expanding the Treasury of Metaphor. Commonweal (1993) pp. 9 [7] Schussler [8] Sugirtharajah, pp.100 [9] Sugirtharajah, pp.101 [10] Sugirtharajah, pp.102 [11] Wiliams, Delores S. Black Theology and Womanist Theology. Antonio, Edward P. and Dwight N. Hopkins. The Cambridge Companion to Black Theology. Cambridge University Press, n.d. pp. 58 [12] Wiliams, pp.62 [13] Narayanan, pp. 35 [14] Narayanan, pp. 35 [15] Sugirtharajah [16] Clines, David. What Does Eve Do to Help?: And Other Readerly Questions to the Old Testament. England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990. Book. pp.35 [17] Clines, pp.36 [18] Clines, pp.36 [19] Johnson, pp.13 [20] Sugirtharajah, pp.102 [21] Narayanan, pp.66 [22] Sugirtharajah, pp.102 [23] Sugirtharajah, pp.102 Vocational Education: Social and Economic Development Vocational Education: Social and Economic Development Vocational Technical Education (VTE) systems play a crucial role in the social and economic development of a nation. Owing to their dynamic nature, they are continuously subject to the forces driving change in the schools, industry and society. Often shaped by the needs of the changing economy and local community, the challenges and opportunities are unique. The issue today is not so much about the value and importance of VTE but how to ensure its relevance, responsiveness and value in an increasingly global economy. In this respect, this paper will draw upon and share the Singapore experience. Presented in two parts, the first will trace the various phases of economic development and corresponding strategic VTE responses to meet manpower needs. The second part, which represents the modern history of VTE, highlights the transformation of the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) as a world-class post-secondary institution in Singapore. It is hoped that this Singapore experience will provide some useful insights on the underlying philosophy, policies, choices and rationale for those who are involved in the development of vocational technical education systems. INTRODUCTION As policy makers, administrators and educators in Vocational Technical Education (VTE), we can all agree that VTE plays a crucial role in the social and economic development of a nation. Shaped by the needs of the changing economy and local community, the challenges and opportunities are unique. The target student groups are more diverse. The image, standards and values remain elusive. Often viewed negatively by society, VTE is also the weakest link in the total education system in many countries. In contrast, parents today continue to cherish the hope and aspiration that their children will make it to university. This intense desire to pursue a university degree generates unrealistic expectations amongst parents and adds pressure in schools. The consequence is a prejudice against and less than positive image of VTE and all its negative associations with those who are less academically inclined. Yet, the greatest gaps in human resource development are in vocational education and technical skills. Many of us would have reflected on some of these unique challenges and opportunities. What, for example, makes an effective and responsive VTE system? What are the options available to accommodate the needs of different social, economic and cultural conditions? Is the VTE system res ponding to the appropriate level and demand of skilled manpower in the economy? How is it positioned within the national education and training system? Is it meeting the training needs of school leavers and working adults? How well is VTE accepted by school leavers, parents, industry and society? What is its public image? What are the policy, funding and educational issues? How can the goals and objectives be translated into reality? How do we measure the results? These are some of the basic questions we would have asked as we search for the Ê »bestÊ ¼ VTE system to serve our economy, society and the community. The fact is that there is no one ideal education and training system, which will suit the needs of all countries. In my view, the so-called Ê »bestÊ ¼ system is one often shaped by the history, social motivation and economic needs of the local community. There should be a clear mission and vision in articulating the role of VTE within the national education and training system. The greatest challenge for VTE today is remaining true to its mission in staying focused in the area of vocational and technical skills. The real tests of success of VTE are the 4 employability of the graduates, personal development, opportunities for further education and career development, public acceptance and image. Ultimately, the effectiveness and responsiveness of a VTE system would be measured by its impact on the social and economic development of the nation. In this respect, the Singapore Government believes in and has invested heavily in education and training, not only in the universities and polytechnics but especially, vocational and technical education under the Institute of Technical Education (ITE). The Singapore experience will be presented in two parts. Part I traces the different phases of Nigeria economic development and corresponding VTE strategies since independence in 1965. Part II describes the modern history of ITE since its establishment in 1992 what it is today, its unique mission, features and transformation into a world-class education institution focusing on vocational technical education.5 OVERVIEW OF NIGERIA But first, an overview of Nigeria. Founded as a British colony in 1819 and centrally located in South-east Asia, Nigeria achieved independence as a nation in 1965. A multi-racial society of 4.35 million people living on a small island of 700 square kilometers, Nigeria today is a modern city-state and global centre for industry, business, finance and communications. Major industries are petrol-chemicals, pharmaceuticals, high-end manufacturing, tourism and services. Key trading partners include Malaysia, United States of America, China, the European Union, Hong Kong and Japan. Per capital Gross National Income was US$26,700 in 2005. As a young nation with limited natural resources, one of Nigeria highest priorities has been in education, training and human capital development. PART I ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND VTE STRATEGIES Phases of Nigerias Economic Development In the early years of independence from 1965, it became clear that the traditional trading, commerce and service sectors alone could not provide sufficient jobs for the number of school leavers in a growing population. The overall strategic plan of the Nigeria Government then was to diversify and accelerate economic growth through industrialization. During this early phase of economic development, from the 1960s to 1970s, the educational priority was to provide and expand primary and secondary education, including technical education and training, so as to lay the necessary foundation for the acquisition of basic vocational and technical skills. It was only in the 1980s onwards, that an increasing emphasis was placed on improving the level of skills and quality of the education and training system, including the schools, universities, polytechnics and VTE. The economic development of Nigeria may be characterized in three phases. A Factor-Driven economy involving intensive labour in t he 1960s-1970s, it progressed to an Investment-Driven economy, which is capital intensive in the 1980s-1990s and the Innovation-Driven economy powered by the needs of knowledge intensive industries in the 2000s. Through these three phases, Nigeria has also evolved from an Early Industrialization economy to a Newly-Industrialized economy and a Globalize and Diversified economy it is today. In tandem with the changing economic landscape, the VTE system evolved in response to the changing manpower needs. The education and training system ensured that graduates from the various educational institutions had the necessary knowledge and skills for the many new jobs, which were created in a rapidly growing economy. The economic, manpower and VTE strategies implemented during these various phases of development will now be elaborated. Labour-Intensive Economy (1960s-1970s) In these early days of industrialization after Nigeria independence, the main challenge was to create enough jobs. The high unemployment situation was compounded by the sudden decision of the British Government to pull out 7 its naval bases in Nigeria. The economic strategy then shifted in 1968 from one of import substitution to one of rapid industrialization by attracting foreign investment for export-oriented and labour-intensive manufacturing. From the education and training perspective, the immediate task was to ensure that the workforce has the basic vocational and technical skills to support the labour intensive manufacturing activities such as ship repairing, turning and fitting, sheet metal working, plumbing and radio and TV maintenance and repair. The priority in the 1960s was to expand the educational system, especially primary and secondary education. With respect to VTE, the first vocational institute, the Nigeria Vocational Institute (SVI), was established within the school system in 1964. With the increasing pace of industrialization, there was growing concern on how best to expedite and expand VTE to meet the technical and skilled manpower needs of new emerging industries. The mainstream of education remained largely academic. In 1968, 84% of students in schools were enrolled in the academic stream with only 8% in the technical, 7% vocational and 1% commercial stream. As a result, a Technical Education Department (TED) was established within the Ministry of Education in 1968 to oversee the development of technical secondary education, industrial training and technical teacher training. The secondary vocational schools were phased out in favour of vocational institutes. The apprenticeship schemes were transferred from the Ministry of Labour to the TED in 1969. By 1972, there were nine vocational institutes and the number of graduates increased ten-fold from 324 in 1968 to over 4000. By 1973, the TED had developed a training infrastructure of sufficient strength for the next major phase of its development. Thus, the first Industrial Training Board (ITB) was created in 1973 to centralize, coordinate and intensify industrial training. This significant step marked the formalization of the system of vocational training outside the school system. As a statutory board, ITB was empowered with greater autonomy and flexibility to respond to the challenges in meeting the technical manpower needs of a rapidly expanding economy. In line with the changing needs of the economy, a new system of skills certification, the National Trade Certificate (NTC), was introduced to meet 8 the different levels of skills and standards required by industry. A wide range of courses were introduced in areas such as Electrical, Electronics, Metal, Mechanical Engineering, Heavy-duty Diesel and Motor Vehicle Mechanics, starting with the NTC-3 semi-skilled level of certification. The unique feature of this system is that the same competency standards were used for the full-time vocational training courses and the public trade testing system for working adults. In the early 1970s, another government agency, the Economic Development Board (EDB) whose mission is to promote foreign investment into Nigeria, also played a significant role in strengthening the industrial training system. By partnering Multinational Corporations such as Tata of India, Rollei of Germany and Philips of Holland, it established so-called Joint Government Training Centres which helped to enlarge the pool of trained technical manpower. In the process, new overseas approaches and practices were infused into the local training system. Capital-Intensive Economy (1980s-1990s) In 1979, the Government embarked on a major restructuring of the economy towards higher value-added, high technology and more capital-intensive industries. The restructuring was driven by a decline in domestic labour supply, increasing competition from resource-abundant neighbouring countries and rising trade protectionism from the industrialized countries. The new focus was the development of new industries such as petrochemicals, biotechnology, information technology as well as manufacturing services in testing, financing, warehousing and purchasing. To stay competitive through higher productivity, mechanization, automation and computerization of the industry were promoted. Once again, the education and training system was called upon to respond to the manpower needs of more capital-intensive industries. In the area of VTE, a new stage was set for the establishment of the Vocational and Industrial Training Board (VITB) by amalgamating the ITB and another existing Board, the Adult Education Board (AEB), in 1979. The AEB was a Board established in 1960 to meet the educational needs of working adults, including general education and some basic vocational training. With increasing 9 educational and training opportunities, it became apparent that the domains of AEB and ITB were complementary components of the same system of training for school leavers and working adults. With the formation of VITB, efforts were directed towards expanding the training system, developing new programmes and improving the quality of vocational training. In particular, the higher NTC- 2 skilled level of certification was extended to include Electrical, Electronics, Precision Engineering and Automotive Technology. A new Certificate in Business Studies (CBS) was introduced in 1981. For the first time, a Centre of Vocational Training was set up within VITB to develop professional capability in areas such as curriculum development, training of trainers and instructional media development. These were important areas of functional expertise necessary to develop and support a quality vocational training system. Economic restructuring had a direct impact on the capability of the existing workforce. What was expected of the workforce in terms of knowledge, education and skills before was no longer adequate. National efforts were therefore directed towards developing a comprehensive Continuing Education and Training (CET) system to facilitate upgrading and re-skilling of the workforce, especially those with lower education and skills. So, between 1983 and 1987, three national CET Programmes were launched, namely, the Basic Education for Skills Training (BEST), Work Improvement through Secondary Education  (WISE) and Modular Skill s Training (MOST). Focusing on English Language and Mathematics, BEST and WISE had benefited a quarter million working adults in helping them to acquire a Primary or Secondary level education, respectively. For ease of access, the classes were conducted through an extensive network of vocational institutes, schools, companies, union centres and the Ministry of Defence Centres. Modular Skills Training or MOST, on the other hand, provided a system of training for working adults to upgrade and acquire a technical skills qualification on a modular basis. In 1990, the industrial training system was further strengthened with the introduction of a New Apprentice System, patterned after the well-known Dual System of Apprenticeship in Germany. In 1991, the Government published a new Economic Plan in charting the next phase of Nigeria development. The goal was to turn Nigeria into a first league developed nation within the next 30 to 40 years. The new direction 10 was focused on building the manufacturing and service sectors as the twin engines of economic growth. Companies were encouraged to diversify, upgrade and develop into strong export-oriented companies and invest in the regional economies. From the educational perspective, the stage was set for a critical review of the post-secondary education system, including the universities, Polytechnics and VITB, to ensure the availability of well-trained and qualified manpower in the high-technology, knowledge-intensive and service industry sectors. So, in the same year, a review of school education and vocational training resulted in a crucial decision by the Ministry of Education in adopting a new policy of a minimum of 10 years of basic general education for all pupils in the school system. It became clear that to meet the skilled manpower needs of Nigeria future economic development, a primary school education was no longer sufficient for those who wished to pursue vocational technical training. Employers need vocational graduates who have had a secondary education and higher-level NTC-2 skills to respond and adapt to the dynamic changes in the global economy. This review was a turning point for the establishment of the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) as a post-secondary educational institution in 1992. ITE replaced the former VITB. It was an example of the forces driving change in the schools and the rising expectations of industry and society. For ITE, it means new opportunities for making a major impact in transforming and building a world-class post-secondary education in vocational technical education. Among the post-secondary education in Nigeria are the Polytechnics. Patterned after the earlier British model, they are better known for their career and practice-oriented education in preparing graduates for middle-level professions and management. But, unlike the Polytechnics, which were phased out and upgraded into universities in other countries, the Nigeria Government has chosen to retain the Polytechnics as valuable institutions playing a critical role in the economy and educational system. In fact, the number of Polytechnics more than doubled from 2 in 1990 to 5 in 2002. Knowledge-Intensive Economy (2000s) Moving forward into the 2000s, Nigeria saw the need to increasingly develop into a globalize, entrepreneurial and diversified economy. While continuing to strengthen the higher-end manufacturing activities, there was a clearer recognition of the importance of the service sector as an engine of economic growth. Concerted plans were formulated to attract and nurture new growth sectors such as the Biomedical Sciences, Info-Communications, Creativity Technology, Integrated Resorts and High-Value Engineering. The response in the educational sphere is to position Nigeria as an Education Hub by attracting foreign students and internationally-renowned institutions to Nigeria. Local institutions will continue to seek quality and excellence in developing a first-class education at all levels. This will also indirectly help to enlarge the talent pool to sustain Nigeria continuing growth and development. Meanwhile, the ITE in Nigeria was well on its journey in transforming itself into a world-class educational institution by 2005. Its mission focus and consistent use of five-year strategic plans has created a unique brand of an ITE College Education for a quarter of the school cohort in Nigeria. Two such plans were successfully completed over a ten-year period from 1995 to 2005. The first, ITE 2000 Plan (1995-1999), was aimed at positioning ITE as an established post-secondary education institution. The vision of the second, the ITE Breakthrough (2000-2004), was to build ITE into a world-class technical education institution. Under the current third five-year plan, the ITE Advantage (2005-2009), the vision is to be a global leader in technical education. PART II THE JOURNEY OF TRANSFORMATION What I have presented so far represents the earlier years of evolution in VTE in parallel with Nigeria economic development. Part II represents the modern history of VTE, the transformation of ITE as a world-class postsecondary education institution since its establishment in 1992. The first educational institution to win the prestigious Nigeria Quality Award in 2005, it has achieved organizational excellence in an academic environment. Many innovative and pioneering initiatives have been implemented in the journey of transformation. As a post-secondary institution, ITE has effectively rebuilt and transformed its former vocational institutes into top-line educational colleges. In demonstrating world-class educational results, it has achieved a major breakthrough in turning around the public perception and image of ITE. Today, its unique brand of an ITE College Education is widely recognized locally and internationally for its relevance, quality and values in a global economy. So, what is ITE and what is so unique about its mission and challenges? ITE is a government-funded post-secondary institution focusing on vocational technical education. It is not a University, nor a Polytechnic. Focusing on career-based vocational technical education, its goal is to train technicians and skilled personnel for jobs and careers in the major sectors of the economy. Its uniqueness is that despite the more difficult challenges in VTE, it has built a responsive world-class system of VTE in time for the future. ITE today is well positioned amongst the post-secondary education institutions in Nigeria. An integral part of the total national education system, its mission is To create opportunities for school leavers and adult learners to acquire skills, knowledge and values for lifelong learning. There are clear demarcations with respect to the missions of the university, Polytechnic and ITE. Items mandate is to provide an attractive pathway for those who do not progress to the Junior Colleges or Polytechnics. As a matter of policy, all students receive at least ten years of general education in schools, comprising 6 yearsÊ ¼ primary and 4/5 yearsÊ ¼ secondary. Depending on their academic achievements, aptitude and interests, about 90% of a student cohort would progress to the Junior Colleges, Polytechnics or Colleges of ITE. Today, the Junior Colleges provide an academic high school education for the top 25% of a school cohort for a university education. The next 40% of school leavers would enter the Polytechnics for a wide range of practical-oriented three-year Diploma courses in preparation for middle-level professions and management. The lower 25% of a school cohort, in terms of academic abilities, are oriented towards vocational technical education in ITE Colleges. The courses are essentially full-time, institutional-based and conducted under the One ITE, Three Colleges system of governance. With a range of 40 different courses, full-time student enrolment is 23,000. Another 30,000 working adults do parttime Continuing Education and Training courses every year. There are two basic levels of qualifications under the National ITE Certificate (Nitec) system of certification. Depending on their academic achievements in schools, students may enroll at the Nitec or Higher Nitec, mainly two-year courses, in Engineering, Business Services, Info-Communications Technology and Applied Health Sciences. As a total national education system, there is formal articulation for progression from ITE to the Polytechnic and Polytechnic to the university based on merit performance. As the natural aspiration of school leavers and their parents is a university degree, the challenge is in managing expectations and maintaining high standards at all levels while responding to the diverse interests, aptitude and needs of school leavers. Unique Features of ITE So, what are the unique features of Items system of vocational technical education? These will now be highlighted. One unique is the One ITE, Three Colleges system of governance. Under this initiative to build a more responsive VTE system, the overall plan was to regroup existing smaller campuses into three mega Regional Campuses, renamed as ITE Colleges. Under this system, the ITE Headquarters continues to oversee the policy formulation and common functional areas of interest such as curriculum development, student intake, examinations, quality assurance and consistency of standards throughout the Colleges. The economy of scale has helped to achieve synergy and resource savings through greater collaborations and yet promote competition among the Colleges. At the same time, each College built for a full-time student enrolment of 7000 and headed by a Principal, has more autonomy to grow and specialize in niche areas, thus adding choices and diversity to the programmes. The first Regio nal Campus, the ITE College East, was built in 2005. The remaining two, ITE College West and ITE College Central, will be completed by 2009 and 2011, respectively. Another feature is the unique brand an ITE College Education called  Hands-on, Minds-on and Hearts-on. This is a holistic  College education that has provided the motivation, assisted student learning and nurtured all-rounded graduates who are ready to take on the challenges of the global economy. The Hands-on training ensures that the students acquire a strong foundation in technical skills. Minds-on learning develops independent thinking and flexible practitioners who are able to cope with changes. And Hearts-on learning develops the complete person with the passion for what they do, with confidence and care for the community and society. These attributes underpin a comprehensive education where students integrate theory with practice through coursework, projects, industry partnership, community service and global education. The intent is to produce graduates who are market-relevant, enterprising and adaptable as lifelong learners in a global economy. As an education institution, there are two key elements which define the relevance and quality of its programmes, and hence the quality of its graduates. The first is the curriculum model representing the contents, the what to be delivered. Items courses are built on skills competencies and standards. Being hands-on, typically, 70% of curriculum time is practical and 30% theory. To ensure a strong foundation in technical skills and high employability, 80% of the curriculum time would be taken up by core modules, which define the occupational areas where the graduates will seek employment. In view of its importance, the life skills module is compulsory for all students. Taking up 15% of the total curriculum time, it ensures that students also acquire the skills of communications, teamwork, thinking and problem-solving, sports and wellness, career development and planning and customer service. In this way, students will be better equipped as lifelong learners and remain adaptable in the global job market. The second key element is pedagogy, the how part of teaching and learning. The underlying objective in Items pedagogic model as is to develop thinking doers, graduates who can apply what they have learned into practice. Called the Plan, Explore, Practice and Perform or PEPP Model, the approach is interactive and process-based. Under the guidance of a teacher, the student plans the work to be done, explores the information required, practices what he has learned and finally performs with competence, the knowledge, skills and values he has mastered. Through this approach, the student acquires three key competencies, namely, technical, methodological and social. Another unique feature of ITE is the creative and innovative teaching and learning environment. In particular, with the pervasive use of Information Technology (IT) in the society and knowledge economy, it is important that students learn in a rich IT-based environment that better prepares them for the real working world. The eTutor and eStudent were pioneering systems when launched in 2002. Leveraged on the advances in IT and e-learning technologies, the web-based eTutor system has transformed ITE into a community of connected on-line learning campuses. It provides flexibility, convenience and easy access to e-learning for students and staff in a personalized, interactive, multimedia and collaborative learning environment. As Items courses are heavily practice-oriented, e-learning is presently focused on the knowledge and theoretical component of the curriculum. Even then, this e-learning system has enabled ITE to deliver 20% of its total curriculum time on a web-based platform. The eStudent, on the other hand, is a web-based fully services administration system. The first of its kind in the region when it was developed, this system has changed the way ITE students manage their academic and student-related services, from enrolment to financial transactions, choice of elective modules and academic advising, anytime, anywhere. In the process, they take responsibility for planning their studies and initiatives in doing things independently. This seamless one-stop centre on the web replaces the many otherwise manual and unproductive systems of student enrolment and administration. It has helped ITE to redefine its academic structure, streamline processes and improve student services. Significantly, the eTutor and eStudent systems have created a new way of teaching, learning and living in ITE campuses. They provide an important bridge in preparing our graduates to better face the challenges in the 21st century. Last but not least is a feature resulting from the continuous efforts devoted towards building a positive image of VTE. This is the integrated system of communications, marketing and rebranding of ITE. Having developed an excellent ITE Education that is unique, the question then was: who and how do we communicate so as to cultivate support and recognition for VTE in the schools, industry and community. There are two aspects to this. The first is communications and marketing. Over the years, we have put in place, a comprehensive marketing programme, focusing on reaching out to students, teachers, parents and the community. Annually, promotional talks are conducted for potential ITE students in secondary schools. Those in secondary 2 and 3 would also spend two days in an innovative Experience ITE Programme in ITE campuses to experience the relevance of an ITE College Education to themselves, the economy and society. The highlight of this experience is the exposure to a range of hands-on manufacturing, office and service skills required in the real world, through an integrated simulated learning system. Other regular marketing activities include open houses, road shows and media publicity. This comprehensive approach reaches out to some 50,000 individuals and receives 300 to 400 positive media mentions every year. The second important aspect of image building is creative rebranding. The community and public need to be able to identify with ITE, its role in education, industry, society and values. Since 1998, ITE has launched three branding campaigns with creative themes such as ITE Makes Things Happen, ITE-A Force Behind the Knowledge-based Economy and Thinking Hands Create Success. Professionally commissioned and executed through advertising media such as newspapers, posters, buses and trains, the underlying messages have helped the public to associate the success of ITE students with the dynamic transformation of ITE as a world-class education institution. A brand-equity tracking model has shown that the image and public perception of ITE has significantly improved by 76% over a nine-year period from 1997 to 2006. Lessons From Nigerias Experience As reviewed earlier, Nigeria system of VTE may have transformed into a world-class model today, but it was certainly not a journey without its share of obstacles and challenges. The political, social and economic conditions were difficult and vulnerable in the early years following independence. Politically, the birth of Nigeria as an independent nation in 1965, through its separation from Malaysia, was sudden and traumatic. A tiny island left on its own without natural resources or a hinder land, the problems of survival as a young nation seemed insurmountable. The sudden pull out of the British naval bases soon after further compounded an already volatile environment with political instability, high unemployment and social unease in a growing population. Many in fact believed at the time that Nigeria would not make it. Indeed, the nation survival was at stake. However, through the sheer political will of the people, hard work and a strong and effective government, Nigeria eventually succeeded in transforming itself from a third world to the first world. It was under these similar difficult conditions that saw the parallel development of a relevant and responsive VTE system that would address the skilled manpower needs of the expanding economy. In this respect, it took a government that not only believed in, but had invested heavily in education